University of Tehran PressPhilosophy of Religion2008-706321320241202Examining Hasker's View as the Response of Substantial Emergentists to the Problem of ConsciousnessExamining Hasker's View as the Response of Substantial Emergentists to the Problem of Consciousness1731859923310.22059/jpht.2024.370640.1006016FASeyed Mohamad AliDibajiDepartment of Philosophy and Theology, College of Farabi, University of Tehran, Qom, Iran0000-0001-9173-9959AbolfazlMazinaniDepartment of Philosophy and Theology, College of Farabi, University of Tehran, Qom, Iran0009-0000-2161-873XJournal Article20240107Consciousness is one of the main challenges of the philosophy of mind in the contemporary period; in other words, the big philosophical problem in the contemporary discourse is how consciousness is possible and how the brain causes it.This is called "hard problem," and the lack of explanation about it is "explanatory gap". In order to address the problems in the field of consciousness, Hasker has expressed the theory of mental substance emergence. According to him, consciousness is a mental substance that is created from matter through a complex process. But can this theory solve the problems of previous theories in the field of consciousness? In this article, the intellectual foundations of the followers of substance emergentism are first scrutinized. Subsequently, based on the analysis and investigation of the nature of consciousness, the challenges of consciousness and the answers provided are examined. It is determined that although Hasker and the followers of the theory of substance emergentism, by accepting the intuition of "self", have made an effective scientific effort to address some challenges, they have not been able to resolve the conflicts caused by the intuition of "self" and physicalism. Issues such as the cause of emergence, the duality of determinability and inexplicability, the relationship of irreducibility with causal reduction and suspension of laws, conflict with the principle of exclusion, and the independence or dependence of mental substance on matter are issues that the theory of the emergent mental substance has encountered.Consciousness is one of the main challenges of the philosophy of mind in the contemporary period; in other words, the big philosophical problem in the contemporary discourse is how consciousness is possible and how the brain causes it.This is called "hard problem," and the lack of explanation about it is "explanatory gap". In order to address the problems in the field of consciousness, Hasker has expressed the theory of mental substance emergence. According to him, consciousness is a mental substance that is created from matter through a complex process. But can this theory solve the problems of previous theories in the field of consciousness? In this article, the intellectual foundations of the followers of substance emergentism are first scrutinized. Subsequently, based on the analysis and investigation of the nature of consciousness, the challenges of consciousness and the answers provided are examined. It is determined that although Hasker and the followers of the theory of substance emergentism, by accepting the intuition of "self", have made an effective scientific effort to address some challenges, they have not been able to resolve the conflicts caused by the intuition of "self" and physicalism. Issues such as the cause of emergence, the duality of determinability and inexplicability, the relationship of irreducibility with causal reduction and suspension of laws, conflict with the principle of exclusion, and the independence or dependence of mental substance on matter are issues that the theory of the emergent mental substance has encountered.https://jpht.ut.ac.ir/article_99233_1e3f5c7224c234a243cfc8b8234d7d21.pdfUniversity of Tehran PressPhilosophy of Religion2008-706321320241202The Defense of the Free Will Defense in Kant's Viewpoint and Its Compatibility with the Foundations of Islamic AnthropologyThe Defense of the Free Will Defense in Kant's Viewpoint and Its Compatibility with the Foundations of Islamic Anthropology1871999858410.22059/jpht.2024.367999.1006005FAZahraFarzaneganPhD of Islamic Theology, Qom University, Qom, Iran0009-0003-5762-1916FarahRaminProfessor at Qom University, Qom, Iran0000-0003-3117-1948Journal Article20231127One of the most important answers to the problem of moral evil is the free will defense, which is subject to severe challenges. The lack of a necessary connection between free will and moral evils, as well as the injustice in granting human beings the mental capacity to use their freedom, are among these criticisms that have particularly challenged the free will defense in contemporary times. Immanuel Kant, an 18th-century German philosopher, depicts the role of free will in the occurrence of moral evils in a way that allows for responses to these objections to be extracted from his foundations in ethics, as well as from the works he has specifically done on this topic. The moral evolution of humanity throughout history is a significant good that, according to Kant, justifies the occurrence of moral evils that arise not from animalistic desires but solely from human free will. This article, with a descriptive-analytical approach and utilizing translations of the works of Kant and some contemporary Kantian scholars, presents a report on Kant's thoughts regarding the free will defense, clarifies its alignment with Islamic anthropology, and outlines the strengths and weaknesses of Kant's perspective.One of the most important answers to the problem of moral evil is the free will defense, which is subject to severe challenges. The lack of a necessary connection between free will and moral evils, as well as the injustice in granting human beings the mental capacity to use their freedom, are among these criticisms that have particularly challenged the free will defense in contemporary times. Immanuel Kant, an 18th-century German philosopher, depicts the role of free will in the occurrence of moral evils in a way that allows for responses to these objections to be extracted from his foundations in ethics, as well as from the works he has specifically done on this topic. The moral evolution of humanity throughout history is a significant good that, according to Kant, justifies the occurrence of moral evils that arise not from animalistic desires but solely from human free will. This article, with a descriptive-analytical approach and utilizing translations of the works of Kant and some contemporary Kantian scholars, presents a report on Kant's thoughts regarding the free will defense, clarifies its alignment with Islamic anthropology, and outlines the strengths and weaknesses of Kant's perspective.https://jpht.ut.ac.ir/article_98584_172d4c04f49fd6523115d230770af329.pdfUniversity of Tehran PressPhilosophy of Religion2008-706321320241202Explanation and Examination of Stephen Unwin's Probabilistic Argument to Prove the Existence of GodExplanation and Examination of Stephen Unwin's Probabilistic Argument to Prove the Existence of God2012169909410.22059/jpht.2024.375523.1006043FARuhollahZeynaliDepartment of Islamic Education, Faculty of Theology, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran0000-0003-1395-0067Journal Article20240423In his book, The Probability of God: A Simple Calculation That Proves the Ultimate Truth, Stephen D'Unwin presents an argument for the existence of God based on Bayes' theorem and six areas of evidence, namely the perception of good and evil, the existence of moral and natural evil, the existence of natural miracles, paranormal phenomena, and religious experiences. D'Unwin concludes that the probability of God's existence is 67%. This article critically examines Unwin's argument, demonstrating that he may not have provided the most comprehensive evidence, and that his explanations for each piece of evidence contain several flaws, such as imprecise definitions, circular reasoning, personal bias, and internal contradictions. These issues undermine the validity of his argument. While this argument may not definitively prove the existence of God, it could still be useful for practical purposes, such as justifying religious beliefs or making personal choices. This article employs a descriptive and critical approach to analyze Unwin's argument.In his book, The Probability of God: A Simple Calculation That Proves the Ultimate Truth, Stephen D'Unwin presents an argument for the existence of God based on Bayes' theorem and six areas of evidence, namely the perception of good and evil, the existence of moral and natural evil, the existence of natural miracles, paranormal phenomena, and religious experiences. D'Unwin concludes that the probability of God's existence is 67%. This article critically examines Unwin's argument, demonstrating that he may not have provided the most comprehensive evidence, and that his explanations for each piece of evidence contain several flaws, such as imprecise definitions, circular reasoning, personal bias, and internal contradictions. These issues undermine the validity of his argument. While this argument may not definitively prove the existence of God, it could still be useful for practical purposes, such as justifying religious beliefs or making personal choices. This article employs a descriptive and critical approach to analyze Unwin's argument.https://jpht.ut.ac.ir/article_99094_083e262c3b044454e0df901c68e162d0.pdfUniversity of Tehran PressPhilosophy of Religion2008-706321320241202Psychological Atheism Arising from the Problem of Divine HiddenPsychological Atheism Arising from the Problem of Divine Hidden2172289933110.22059/jpht.2024.372539.1006030FAMotahhareAyaziDepartment of Religions & Philosophy, Faculty of Literature & Foreign Language, University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran0009-0002-8991-2083HasanAhmadizadeDepartment of Religions & Philosophy, Faculty of Literature & Foreign Language, University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran0000-0002-1125-1441Journal Article20240212One of the theological concerns of believers in all religions is the attention of God to their prayers. In the scriptures, God is introduced as present and influential in the system of existence and loving towards his creatures, but not visually perceptible to humans. This has led some believers to perceive that God either does not exist at all or, for some reason, is hidden from humans, leading to doubts about the existence of God. The divine disappearance has had various cognitive and psychological consequences. In this study, we have attempted to focus on the psychological consequences of this issue and find ways to address the emotional and psychological doubts arising from the belief in the divine disappearance based on discussions in psychology and the psychology of religion. Feelings of God's distance from humans, not feeling loved by God, the possibility that God may have lied about the promises made to humans in the sacred books, and the feeling that God does not care about humans and does not want them to be benevolent, are among the emotional doubts arising from the belief in the existence of God. However, these doubts are often the result of incorrect beliefs that humans depict in their minds about God and his relationship with humans. By having a correct analysis of these misconceptions and replacing them with correct beliefs about God, it is possible to overcome emotional doubts arising from the divine disappearance.One of the theological concerns of believers in all religions is the attention of God to their prayers. In the scriptures, God is introduced as present and influential in the system of existence and loving towards his creatures, but not visually perceptible to humans. This has led some believers to perceive that God either does not exist at all or, for some reason, is hidden from humans, leading to doubts about the existence of God. The divine disappearance has had various cognitive and psychological consequences. In this study, we have attempted to focus on the psychological consequences of this issue and find ways to address the emotional and psychological doubts arising from the belief in the divine disappearance based on discussions in psychology and the psychology of religion. Feelings of God's distance from humans, not feeling loved by God, the possibility that God may have lied about the promises made to humans in the sacred books, and the feeling that God does not care about humans and does not want them to be benevolent, are among the emotional doubts arising from the belief in the existence of God. However, these doubts are often the result of incorrect beliefs that humans depict in their minds about God and his relationship with humans. By having a correct analysis of these misconceptions and replacing them with correct beliefs about God, it is possible to overcome emotional doubts arising from the divine disappearance.https://jpht.ut.ac.ir/article_99331_a1774f423d45d26a1cd8519fdbb44d5a.pdfUniversity of Tehran PressPhilosophy of Religion2008-706321320241215Examining the Doctrine of Salvation in Origen’s TheologyExamining the Doctrine of Salvation in Origen’s Theology2292419959910.22059/jpht.2024.382493.1006076FASeyed Said RezaMontazeriDepartment of Religions and Mysticism, Faculty of Theology, College of Farabi, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran0000-0002-5610-8673AliTanhadoostDepartment of Eastern Religions, PhD Candidate, University of Religions and Denominations, Qom, IranJournal Article20240928The topic of salvation in Christianity is one of the basic teachings mentioned both in the Bible and the tradition of the apostles; the works of the Church Fathers also addresses this topic. The fundamental principle in the doctrine of salvation among the Greek Fathers, in general, and Origen of Alexandria, in particular, is the Christ himself. According to Origen, the plan of salvation was planned by the Heavenly Father and implemented by his only Son. Through repentance and baptism, the Christian believer is placed on the path of spiritual growth. By reflecting on the Holy Book, which is the truth of the Logos or the Son, and by persevering in acquiring spiritual knowledge, with the help of the Holy Spirit, he attains the grace of salvation. The final spiritual order on the path of salvation was unification and annihilation in the Logos, which is the soul of the world. Union with the Logos, living in the manner of Christ and acquiring moral virtues constitute the Godliness which, in Origen's thought, is synonymous with salvation. Origen sees the mercy and love of the Heavenly Father as so vast and all-pervading that all creatures will eventually be redeemed. Perhaps the most important theory of Origen regarding salvation is the theory of “Universalism,” according to which even sinners and even devils will ultimately be saved. This theory that did not please the church and became one of the reasons for Origen's excommunication.The topic of salvation in Christianity is one of the basic teachings mentioned both in the Bible and the tradition of the apostles; the works of the Church Fathers also addresses this topic. The fundamental principle in the doctrine of salvation among the Greek Fathers, in general, and Origen of Alexandria, in particular, is the Christ himself. According to Origen, the plan of salvation was planned by the Heavenly Father and implemented by his only Son. Through repentance and baptism, the Christian believer is placed on the path of spiritual growth. By reflecting on the Holy Book, which is the truth of the Logos or the Son, and by persevering in acquiring spiritual knowledge, with the help of the Holy Spirit, he attains the grace of salvation. The final spiritual order on the path of salvation was unification and annihilation in the Logos, which is the soul of the world. Union with the Logos, living in the manner of Christ and acquiring moral virtues constitute the Godliness which, in Origen's thought, is synonymous with salvation. Origen sees the mercy and love of the Heavenly Father as so vast and all-pervading that all creatures will eventually be redeemed. Perhaps the most important theory of Origen regarding salvation is the theory of “Universalism,” according to which even sinners and even devils will ultimately be saved. This theory that did not please the church and became one of the reasons for Origen's excommunication.https://jpht.ut.ac.ir/article_99599_cc97aa9c37bd30028b59e80be21c62ac.pdfUniversity of Tehran PressPhilosophy of Religion2008-706321320241231A Critical Review of the Relationship Between Reason and the Commitment Dimension of Faith from the Perspective of John Cottingham with Emphasis on the View of Allamah Tabataba'iA Critical Review of the Relationship Between Reason and the Commitment Dimension of Faith from the Perspective of John Cottingham with Emphasis on the View of Allamah Tabataba'i2432549988110.22059/jpht.2024.381758.1006070FAMahdiKhayatzadehDepartment of Practical Hikmat, Iranian institute of philosophy, Tehran, Iran0000-0001-9145-3838Journal Article20240901John Cottingham, a contemporary English philosopher, has presented his view on the relationship between reason and the commitment aspect of faith in three parts: 1. The function of religious commitment in human moral life. 2. The compatibility between religious commitment and human autonomy; and 3. The distinct function of corroboration in religious commitment and empirical science. The following work evaluates Cottingham's view in the first two parts. In the first part, he considers the support of religious commitment and commitment to moral laws to be rooted in belief in God as the source of goodness. In the second part, using existentialist principles in the relationship between man and the world, he believes that man is not a self-created being and is in a situation over which he has had no influence. In such circumstances, surrendering to moral laws is not merely surrendering to the will of another, but is a conscious choice for one's own development. His view in these two parts can be examined in light of Allameh Tabataba'i's view. In the first part, based on Allameh Tabataba'i's philosophical foundations, a more comprehensive explanation can be proposed. However, regarding the second part, two points are noteworthy: first, his response to this issue is a standard statement in explaining the relationship between God and man, and second, the initial commitment to the same pillar of faith precedes action, rather than coming after it.John Cottingham, a contemporary English philosopher, has presented his view on the relationship between reason and the commitment aspect of faith in three parts: 1. The function of religious commitment in human moral life. 2. The compatibility between religious commitment and human autonomy; and 3. The distinct function of corroboration in religious commitment and empirical science. The following work evaluates Cottingham's view in the first two parts. In the first part, he considers the support of religious commitment and commitment to moral laws to be rooted in belief in God as the source of goodness. In the second part, using existentialist principles in the relationship between man and the world, he believes that man is not a self-created being and is in a situation over which he has had no influence. In such circumstances, surrendering to moral laws is not merely surrendering to the will of another, but is a conscious choice for one's own development. His view in these two parts can be examined in light of Allameh Tabataba'i's view. In the first part, based on Allameh Tabataba'i's philosophical foundations, a more comprehensive explanation can be proposed. However, regarding the second part, two points are noteworthy: first, his response to this issue is a standard statement in explaining the relationship between God and man, and second, the initial commitment to the same pillar of faith precedes action, rather than coming after it.https://jpht.ut.ac.ir/article_99881_ca76ee55a99b4a15e900f913ab39dbde.pdf